桝田道也のウェブサイト(旧) このブログは移転しました。→300 秒後に移動します. Control & Management in the Pacific Northwest. Lands without RCG tend to have a much higher diversity of native. Brush cutter, weed eater, tractor-drawn mower, machete, etc.) by itself will not kill RCG. In fact, if RCG is mowed only once or twice per year, it actually stimulates. May 07, 2017 Weeds Control Without Poisons Pdf Creator. 5/7/2017 0 Comments From the New World (Literature)A millennium from now, in Japan, there exists a utopia. Saki Watanabe lives in an idyllic village barred from the outside world. Her world is ruled by the people who possess the.
Training Manual for Naturalist Staff Sponsored by the King County Noxious Weed Control Program. 2 Written by Ginny Ballard, Julie Nelson, and Clay Heilman Nature Vision, Inc. Revised August 2013. Create more eyes in the field to alert KC staff to problem areas. Potions & Poisons Study Materials 2017-2018 Terminology 5 Chemical bonding 5 Electronegativity 5. Create molecules. The two types of bonding that the current version of the Potions and Poisons. Equation is given without coefficients, chances are that there is an inequality on either side.
A weed is a plant considered undesirable in a particular situation, 'a plant in the wrong place'. Examples commonly are plants unwanted in human-controlled settings, such as farm fields, gardens, lawns, and parks. Taxonomically, the term 'weed' has no botanical significance, because a plant that is a weed in one context is not a weed when growing in a situation where it is in fact wanted, and where one species of plant is a valuable crop plant, another species in the same genus might be a serious weed, such as a wild bramble growing among cultivated loganberries. In the same way, volunteer crops (plants) are regarded as weeds in a subsequent crop. Many plants that people widely regard as weeds also are intentionally grown in gardens and other cultivated settings, in which case they are sometimes called beneficial weeds. The term weed also is applied to any plant that grows or reproduces aggressively, or is invasive outside its native habitat.[1] More broadly 'weed' occasionally is applied pejoratively to species outside the plant kingdom, species that can survive in diverse environments and reproduce quickly; in this sense it has even been applied to humans.[2]
Weed control is important in agriculture. Methods include hand cultivation with hoes, powered cultivation with cultivators, smothering with mulch or soil solarization, lethal wilting with high heat, burning, or chemical attack with herbicides.
1Ecological significance
Ecological significance
A dandelion is a common plant all over the world, especially in Europe, Asia, and the Americas. It is a well-known example of a plant that is considered a weed in some contexts (such as lawns) but not a weed in others (such as when it is used as a vegetable or herbal medicine).
Certain classes of weeds share adaptations to ruderal environments. That is to say: disturbed environments where soil or natural vegetative cover has been damaged or frequently gets damaged, disturbances that give the weeds advantages over desirable crops, pastures, or ornamental plants. The nature of the habitat and its disturbances will affect or even determine which types of weed communities become dominant.[3]
Examples of such ruderal or pioneer species include plants that are adapted to naturally occurring disturbed environments such as dunes and other windswept areas with shifting soils, alluvial flood plains, river banks and deltas, and areas that are burned repeatedly.[4] Since human agricultural practices often mimic these natural environments where weedy species have evolved, some weeds are effectively preadapted to grow and proliferate in human-disturbed areas such as agricultural fields, lawns, roadsides, and construction sites. The weedy nature of these species often gives them an advantage over more desirable crop species because they often grow quickly and reproduce quickly, they commonly have seeds that persist in the soil seed bank for many years, or they may have short lifespans with multiple generations in the same growing season. In contrast, perennial weeds often have underground stems that spread under the soil surface or, like ground ivy (Glechoma hederacea), have creeping stems that root and spread out over the ground.[5]
Some plants become dominant when introduced into new environments because the animals in their original environment, that compete with them or feed on them are absent; in what is sometimes called the “natural enemies hypothesis”, plants freed from these specialist consumers may become dominant. An example is Klamath weed, that threatened millions of hectares of prime grain and grazing land in North America after it was accidentally introduced, but was reduced to a rare roadside weed within several years after some of its natural enemies were imported during World War II.[6] In locations where predation and mutually competitive relationships are absent, weeds have increased resources available for growth and reproduction. The weediness of some species that are introduced into new environments may be caused by their production of allelopathic chemicals which indigenous plants are not yet adapted to, a scenario sometimes called the 'novel weapons hypothesis'. These chemicals may limit the growth of established plants or the germination and growth of seeds and seedlings.[7][8]
Another of the ways in which the ecological role of a plant can make it a weed even if it is in itself inoffensive, is if it harbours a pest that is dependent on it for survival; for example, Berberis species are intermediate hosts for stem rust fungi, so that they promote serious damage to wheat crops when growing near the fields.
Competition with cultivated and endemic plants
700 cattle that were killed overnight by a poisonous weed.[9]
A number of native or non-native plants are unwanted in a specific location for a number of reasons.[10] An important one is that they interfere with food and fiber production in agriculture, wherein they must be controlled in order to prevent lost or diminished crop yields. Other important reasons are that they interfere with other cosmetic, decorative, or recreational goals, such as in lawns, landscape architecture, playing fields, and golf courses. Similarly, they can be of concern for environmental reasons whereby introduced species out-compete for resources or space with desired endemic plants. For all these reasons; horticulture, both functional and cosmetic, and environmental, - weeds interfere by:
competing with the desired plants for the resources that a plant typically needs, namely, direct sunlight, soil nutrients, water, and (to a lesser extent) space for growth;
providing hosts and vectors for plant pathogens, giving them greater opportunity to infect and degrade the quality of the desired plants;
providing food or shelter for animal pests such as seed-eating birds and Tephritid fruit flies that otherwise could hardly survive seasonal shortages;[11]
offering irritation to the skin or digestive tracts of people or animals, either physical irritation via thorns, prickles, or burs, or chemical irritation via natural poisons or irritants in the weed (for example, the poisons found in Nerium species);[12]
causing root damage to engineering works such as drains, road surfaces, and foundations,[13] blocking streams and rivulets.[14]
In weed ecology some authorities speak of the relationship between 'the three Ps': plant, place, perception. These have been very variously defined, but the weed traits listed by H.G. Baker are widely cited.[15][16]
This expanded second edition of the internationally bestselling Death, Mourning, and Burial offers cross-cultural readings that span the period from dying to afterlife, considering approaches to this transition as a social process and exploring the great variations of cultural responses to death. Beth conklin vanderbilt. Exploring new content including organ transplantation, institutionalized care for the dying, HIV-AIDs, animal mourning, and biotechnology, this text retains classic readings from the first edition, and is enhanced by sixteen new articles and two new sections which provide increased breadth and depth for readers. Death, Mourning, and Burial, Second Edition is divided into eight parts reflecting the social trajectory of death: conceptualizations of death; death, dying, and care; grief and mourning; mortuary rituals; and remembrance and regeneration.
Weeds have long been a concern, perhaps as long as humans have cultivated plants. They are mentioned in various historic texts, such as a Shakespeareansonnet:
To thy fair flower add the rank smell of weeds: / But why thy odour matcheth not thy show, / The soil is this, that thou dost common grow.[17]
and the Bible:[1]
Cursed is the ground because of you; through painful toil you will eat of it all the days of your life. It will produce thorns and thistles for you, and you will eat the plants of the field. By the sweat of your brow you will eat your food until you return to the ground.[18]
Benefits of weed species
'What would the world be, once bereft,
of wet and wildness? Let them be left. O let them be left; wildness and wet;
Long live the weeds and the wilderness yet.'
-- Gerard Manley Hopkins' poem Inversnaid
While the term 'weed' generally has a negative connotation, many plants known as weeds can have beneficial properties. A number of weeds, such as the dandelion (Taraxacum) and lamb's quarter, are edible, and their leaves or roots may be used for food or herbal medicine. Burdock is common over much of the world, and is sometimes used to make soup and medicine in East Asia.[19] Some weeds attract beneficial insects, which in turn can protect crops from harmful pests. Weeds can also prevent pest insects from finding a crop, because their presence disrupts the incidence of positive cues which pests use to locate their food. Weeds may also act as a 'living mulch', providing ground cover that reduces moisture loss and prevents erosion. Weeds may also improve soil fertility; dandelions, for example, bring up nutrients like calcium and nitrogen from deep in the soil with their tap root, and clover hosts nitrogen-fixing bacteria in its roots, fertilizing the soil directly. The dandelion is also one of several species which break up hardpan in overly cultivated fields, helping crops grow deeper root systems. Some garden flowers originated as weeds in cultivated fields and have been selectively bred for their garden-worthy flowers or foliage. An example of a crop weed that is grown in gardens is the corncockle, (Agrostemma githago), which was a common weed in European wheat fields, but is now sometimes grown as a garden plant.[20]
Dispersal
Many weed species have moved out of their natural geographic ranges and spread around the world in tandem with human migrations and commerce. Weed seeds are often collected and transported with crops after the harvesting of grains, so humans are a vector of transport as well as a producer of the disturbed environments to which weed species are well adapted, resulting in many weeds having a close association with human activities.[21][22]
Some weed species have been classified as noxious weeds by government authorities because, if left unchecked, they often compete with native or crop plants or cause harm to livestock.[23] They are often foreign species accidentally or imprudently imported into a region where there are few natural controls to limit their population and spread.[24]
Weeds as adaptable species
'We've got to be one of the most bomb-proof species on the planet.'
paleontologist David Jablonsky[2]
An alternate definition often used by biologists is any species, not just plants, that can quickly adapt to any environment.[2] Some traits of weedy species are the ability to reproduce quickly, disperse widely, live in a variety of habitats, establish a population in strange places, succeed in disturbed ecosystems and resist eradication once established. Such species often do well in human-dominated environments as other species are not able to adapt. Common examples include the common pigeon, brown rat and the raccoon. Other weedy species have been able to expand their range without actually living in human environments, as human activity has damaged the ecosystems of other species. These include the coyote, the white-tailed deer and the brown headed cowbird.[2]
In response to the idea that humans may face extinction due to environmental degradation, paleontologist David Jablonsky counters by arguing that humans are a weed species. Like other weedy species, humans are widely dispersed in a wide variety of environments, and are highly unlikely to go extinct no matter how much damage the environment faces.[2]
Plants often considered to be weeds
White clover
White clover is considered by some to be a weed in lawns, but in many other situations is a desirable source of fodder, honey and soil nitrogen.[25][26]
A short list of some plants that often are considered to be weeds follows:
Amaranth – ('pigweed') annual with copious long-lasting seeds, also a highly edible and resilient food source
Bermuda grass – perennial, spreading by runners, rhizomes and seeds.
Broadleaf plantain – perennial, spreads by seeds that persist in the soil for many years
Burdock – biennial
Common lambsquarters – annual
Creeping charlie – perennial, fast-spreading plants with long creeping stems
Dandelion – perennial, wind-spread, fast-growing, and drought-tolerant
Goldenrod – perennial
Kudzu – perennial
Leafy spurge – perennial, with underground stems
Milk thistle – annual or biennial
Poison ivy – perennial
Ragweed – annual
Sorrel – annual or perennial
St John's wort – perennial
Sumac – woody perennial
Tree of heaven – woody perennial
Wild carrot – biennial
Wood sorrel – perennial
Yellow nutsedge – perennial
Many invasive weeds were introduced deliberately in the first place, and may have not been considered nuisances at the time, but rather beneficial.
Weed control
Weeds are plants that some people view as undesirable in a particular place. Throughout the long human history of horticulture, people have worked to control weeds for many reasons. Weed control is a highly developed field of knowledge.[citation needed]
Weed control methods vary according to the growth habit of the weeds in questions, as well as the context. For example, different methods of weed control may be used on a food crop versus a fiber crop or a golf course, because there is often more concern about health effects of chemicals used on food crops.[citation needed]
Weeds can be categorized by their life habit. They can generally either be grouped as annuals or perennials. An annual weed grows from the seeds dropped in the previous growing season. Perennial weeds regrow from previously established roots, dormant stolons, tubers, rhizomes, as well as the seed.
Understanding the habit of weeds is also important for non-chemical methods of weed control, such as plowing, surface scuffling, promotion of more beneficial cover crops, and prevention of seed accumulation in fields. For example, amaranth is an edible plant that is considered a weed by mainstream modern agriculture. It produces copious seeds (up to 1 million per plant) that last many years, and is an early-emergent fast grower. Those seeking to control amaranth quote the mantra 'This year’s seeds become next year’s weeds!'[27] However, another view of amaranth values the plant as a resilient food source.[28]
Some people have appreciated weeds for their tenacity, their wildness and even the work and connection to nature they provide. As Christopher Lloyd wrote in The Well-Tempered Garden:
Many gardeners will agree that hand-weeding is not the terrible drudgery that it is often made out to be. Some people find in it a kind of soothing monotony. It leaves their minds free to develop the plot for their next novel or to perfect the brilliant repartee with which they should have encountered a relative's latest example of unreasonableness.[29]
History
It has long been assumed that weeds, in the sense of rapidly evolving plants taking advantage of human-disturbed environments, evolved in response to the Neolithic agricultural revolution approximately 12,000 years ago. However, researchers have found evidence of 'proto-weeds' behaving in similar ways at Ohalo II, a 23,000-year-old archeological site in Israel.[30]
See also
References
^ abJanick, Jules (1979). Horticultural Science (3rd ed.). San Francisco: W.H. Freeman. p. 308. ISBN0-7167-1031-5.
^ abcdeDavid Quammen (October 1998), 'Planet of Weeds'(PDF), Harper's Magazine, retrieved November 15, 2012
^Bell, Graham (2005). The Permaculture Garden. Chelsea Green Publishing. pp. 63–64. ISBN9781856230278.
^Hans Lambers; F Stuart Chapin III; Thijs L. Pons (8 October 2008). Plant Physiological Ecology. Springer. pp. 507–. ISBN978-0-387-78341-3.
^Saupe, Stephen G. 'Plant Foraging: Two Case Studies'(PDF). Retrieved February 15, 2009.
^Muhammad Ashraf; Münir Öztürk; Muhammad Sajid Aqeel Ahmad; Ahmet Aksoy (2 June 2012). Crop Production for Agricultural Improvement. Springer. pp. 525–. ISBN978-94-007-4116-4.
^Annecke, D. R., Moran, V. C. (1982). Insects and mites of cultivated plants in South Africa. London: Butterworths. ISBN0-409-08398-4.CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
^Watt, John Mitchell; Breyer-Brandwijk, Maria Gerdina: The Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of Southern and Eastern Africa 2nd ed Pub. E & S Livingstone 1962
^Roberts, John; Jackson, Nick; Smith, Mark. Tree Roots in the Built Environment. 2006. ISBN978-0117536203
^Weeds Australia Black Willow
^Baker, H.G. The Evolution of Weeds. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, Vol. 5: 1–24 November 1974 doi:10.1146/annurev.es.05.110174.000245
^Baker H. G. 'Characteristics and modes of origin of weeds'. In The Genetics of Colonizing Species. H. G. Baker, G. L. Stebbins. eds. New York, Academic Press, 1965, pp. 147-172
^Shakespeare, William. Those parts of thee that the world's eye doth view. Infoplease. Retrieved February 15, 2009.
^Genesis 3:17-19 New International Version
^'Burdock Root'. Chinese Soup Pot. Retrieved 29 May 2015.
^Preston, Pearman & Dines. (2002). New Atlas of the British Flora. Oxford University Press.
^Rashid M. Hassan; Robert Scholes; Neville Ash (14 December 2005). Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Current State and Trends: Findings of the Condition and Trends Working Group. Island Press. pp. 570–. ISBN978-1-55963-228-7.
^National Geographic (2011). National Geographic Answer Book: 10,001 Fast Facts about Our World. National Geographic Society. pp. 175–. ISBN978-1-4262-0892-8.
^United States. Bureau of Land Management. Oregon State Office (1985). Northwest area noxious weed control program: environmental impact statement : final. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Oregon State Office. pp. 2–.
^House (U S ) Office of the Law Revision (25 April 2008). United States Code, 2006, V. 3, Title 7, Sections 701-End. Government Printing Office. pp. 1230–. ISBN978-0-16-079998-3.
^Voisin, Andre. Grass Productivity. Publisher: Island Press 1988. ISBN978-0933280649
^Woodfield, Derek R. White clover, New Zealand's competitive edge. Symposium NZ Agronomy Society and Grassland Association at Lincoln University, New Zealand, November, 1995
^'The Biology and Ecology of Palmer Amaranth: Implications for Control'. UGA extension. Retrieved 29 May 2015.
^'Rethinking a Weed: the Truth about Amaranth'. Our World. United Nations University.
^Christopher Lloyd, The Well-Tempered Garden, 1973
^Ainit Snir; et al. (22 July 2015). 'The Origin of Cultivation and Proto-Weeds, Long Before Neolithic Farming'. PLOS ONE. 10: e0131422. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0131422. PMC4511808. Retrieved 23 July 2015.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Weeds (plants).
Lucid Multi-access key to invasive terrestrial plants in Europe (140 species, 41 characters)
Lucid multi-access key: Weeds of Australia Identification Tool. Queensland Government. (1021 species, 55 characters)
Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Weed&oldid=905019309'
(Redirected from Noxious weeds)
A mature Scotch thistle, an invasive weed in Australia (person for scale)
A noxious weed, harmful weed or injurious weed is a weed that has been designated by an agricultural or other governing authority as a plant that is injurious to agricultural or horticultural crops, natural habitats or ecosystems, or humans or livestock. Most noxious weeds have been introduced into an ecosystem by ignorance, mismanagement, or accident. Some noxious weeds are native. Typically they are plants that grow aggressively, multiply quickly without natural controls (native herbivores, soil chemistry, etc.), and display adverse effects through contact or ingestion. Noxious weeds are a large problem in many parts of the world, greatly affecting areas of agriculture, forest management, nature reserves, parks and other open space.[1]
Many noxious weeds have come to new regions and countries through contaminated shipments of feed and crop seeds or were intentionally introduced as ornamental plants for horticultural use.
Some 'noxious weeds', such as ragwort, produce copious amounts of nectar, valuable for the survival of bees and other pollinators, or other advantages like larval host foods and habitats. Wild parsnip, Pastinaca sativa, for instance, provides large tubular stems that some bee species hibernate in, larval food for two different swallowtail butterflies, and other beneficial qualities.[2]
4By country
Types[edit]
There are types of noxious weeds that are harmful or poisonous to humans, domesticated grazing animals, and wildlife. Open fields and grazing pastures with disturbed soils and open sunlight are often more susceptible. Protecting grazing animals from toxic weeds in their primary feeding areas is therefore important.[3]
Control[edit]
Some guidelines to prevent the spread of noxious weeds are:
Avoid driving through noxious weed-infested areas.
Avoid transporting or planting seeds and plants that one can't identify.
For noxious weeds in flower or with seeds on plants, pulling 'gently' out and placing in a secure closable bag is recommended. Disposal such as hot composting or contained burning is done when safe and practical for the specific plant. Burning poison ivy can be fatal to humans.[4]
Using only certified weed-free seeds for crops or gardens.[5]
Maintaining control of noxious weeds is important for the health of habitats, livestock, wildlife and native plants, and of humans of all ages. How to control noxious weeds depends on the surrounding environment and habitats, the weed species, the availability of equipment, labor, supplies, and financial resources. Laws often require that noxious weed control funding from governmental agencies must be used for eradication, invasion prevention, or native habitat and plant community restoration project scopes.[5]
Insects and fungi have long been used as biological controls of different noxious weeds and more recently nematodes have also been used.[6]
Controversy and biases[edit]
Agricultural needs, desires, and concerns do not always mesh with those of other areas, such as pollinatornectar provision.[7]Ragwort, for instance, was rated as the top flower meadow nectar source in a UK study, and in the top ten in another. Its early blooming period is also particularly helpful for the establishment of bumblebee colonies.[8] Thistles that have been dubbed noxious weeds in the US and elsewhere, such as Cirsium arvense and Cirsium vulgare, have also rated at or near the top of the charts in multiple UK studies for nectar production. These thistles also serve as a larval host plant for the Painted lady butterfly. There can be, therefore, a conflict between agricultural policy and point of view and the point of view of conservationists or other groups.
By country[edit]
Australia[edit]
In Australia, the term 'noxious weed' is used by state and territorial governments.[9][example needed]
Canada[edit]
In Canada, constitutional responsibility for the regulation of agriculture and the environment are shared between the federal and provincial governments. The federal government through the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) regulates invasive plants under the authority of the Plant Protection Act, the Seeds Act and statutory regulations. Certain plant species have been designated by the CFIA as noxious weeds in the Weed Seeds Order.[10]
Each province also produces its own list of prohibited weeds. In Alberta, for example, a new Weed Control Act was proclaimed in 2010 with two weed designations: 'prohibited noxious' (46 species) which are banned across Alberta, and 'noxious' (29 species) which can be restricted at the discretion of local authorities.[11]
New Zealand[edit]
New Zealand has had a series of Acts of Parliament relating to noxious weeds: the Noxious Weeds Act 1908, Noxious Weeds Act 1950, and the Noxious Plants Act 1978. The last was repealed by the Biosecurity Act 1993, which used words such as 'pest', 'organism' and 'species', rather than 'noxious'. Consequently, the term 'noxious weed' is no longer used in official publications in New Zealand.
United Kingdom[edit]
The Weeds Act, 1959 covers Great Britain,[12] and is described as 'preventing the spread of harmful or injurious weeds'.[citation needed] It is mainly relevant to farmers and other rural settings rather than the allotment or garden-scale growers. Five 'injurious' (that is, likely to be harmful to agricultural production) weeds are covered by the provisions of the Weeds Act. These are:
Spear thistle (Cirsium vulgare)
Creeping, or field, thistle (Cirsium arvense)
Curled dock (Rumex crispus)
Broad-leaved dock (Rumex obtusifolius)
Common ragwort (Senecio jacobaea)
The Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) provides guidance for the removal of these weeds from infested land. Much of this is oriented towards the use of herbicides.
The Act does not place any automatic legal responsibility on landowners to control the weeds, but they may be ordered to control them. Most common farmland weeds are not 'injurious' within the meaning of the Weeds Act and many such plant species have conservation and environmental value. DEFRA has a duty to try to achieve reasonable balance among different interests. These include agriculture, countryside conservation and the general public.
Section 14 of the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 makes it an offence to plant or grow certain specified plants in the wild, listed in Schedule 9 of the Act, including giant hogweed and Japanese knotweed. Some local authorities have by-laws controlling these plants.[citation needed] There is no statutory requirement for landowners to remove these plants from their property.
Weeds Control Without Poisons Pdf Creator
Northern Ireland is covered by the Noxious Weeds (Northern Ireland) Order 1977.[13] This mirrors the Great Britain legislation, and covers the same five species, with the addition of:
Wild oat (Avena fatua)
Wild oat (Avena ludoviciana)
United States[edit]
The federal government defines noxious weeds under the Federal Noxious Weed Act of 1974. Noxious weeds are also defined by the state governments in the United States.[14]
See also[edit]
References[edit]
^'Cal-IPC: Invasive Plant Definitions, What Makes a Plant 'Invasive'?'. www.cal-ipc.org. California Invasive Plant Council. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
^'Wild Parsnip'. Illinois Wildflowers.info. Retrieved 13 November 2017.
^Prather pp. 27,45,53,67-73
^'Poison Ivy Identification and Control'(PDF). Archived(PDF) from the original on 2015-06-22. Retrieved 2015-06-22.
^ ab'Idaho State Department of Agriculture'. 2005. Archived from the original on 19 July 2008. Retrieved 2 November 2008.
^V S Rao (2 January 2000). Principles of Weed Science, Second Edition. Taylor & Francis. pp. 319–. ISBN978-1-57808-069-4.
^'Which flowers are the best source of nectar?'. Conservation Grade. 2014-10-15. Retrieved 2017-10-18.
^Hicks, DM; Ouvrard, P; Baldock, KCR (2016). 'Food for Pollinators: Quantifying the Nectar and Pollen Resources of Urban Flower Meadows'. PLoS ONE. 11 (6). Bibcode:2016PLoSO.1158117H. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0158117. PMC4920406.
^'National weeds lists'. Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities. 14 August 2012. Retrieved 25 August 2012.
^'Invasive Plants Policy'. Canadian Food Inspection Agency. 2012-02-20. Retrieved 31 December 2013.